Outline of the Turkish  Education System

1-INTRODUCTION

The basic structure of the Turkish national education system is outlined  in Basic Law No.1739 on National Education.The Ministry of National Education ( Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı ) is responsible for all educational services in the country excluding the higher education, In accordance with the  Law No. 2547 of 1981, the Council of Higher Education (Yükseköğretim Kurulu, YÖK) is the planning, coordinating and policy making body for higher education. Formal education includes pre-school education, basic education, secondary education, and higher education.

2. PRE-SCHOOL EDUCATION

Pre-school education is the broad term applied to non-compulsory programs for children from birth to the age of 72 months, i.e., prior to the starting age for compulsory basic education. The aims of pre-school education are to contribute to the physical, mental and emotional development of children; to help them aquire good habits; to prepare them for basic education; to provide a suitable atmosphere for children from deprived areas and families, and to help them acquire an adequate command of the Turkish language.

Pre-school education is divided into three sub-categories: day nurseries (kreş and yuva), kindergartens ( anaokulu ), and pre-school classes (anasınıfı ).

The Ministry of National Education provides pre-school education for children from teh age of 36 to 72 months in kindergartens and pre-school classes.In addition, there are private nurseries, day care centers, and kindergartens which provide care and education for children in the 0-72 month age group, and function in accordance with various regulations.

In order to ensuer organic unity in chid-care and educational services, the the Ministry of National Education, in colloboration with universities and other institutions, prepared and began to implement the following programs during the 1994-95 school year:

• Day-Nursey (for the 0-36 month age group)
• Kindergarten (for the 37-60 month age group)
• Pre-School Classes (for the 67-72 month age group)

These programs are also implemented by private institutions serving the 0-72 month age group.

Particular importance has been placed upon encouraging private and public institutions to play a role in the development and expansion of pre-school educational   institutions. With this aim in mind, a new architectural plan was prepared, and construction was begun on a model  independent pre-school institution in each province.

3. BASIC EDUCATION

In Turkey, basic education forms the foundation forms the foundation of national education system. It is compulsory for every Turkish citizen from the age of six to the age of fourteen, regardless of sex, and is free-of-charge in state schools. Compulsory 8-year basic education is guaranteed by the Constitution, the Basic Law on National Education, and the Law on Primary Education and Education.

In 1997, the duration of compulsory basic education was extended from five to eight years by Law No. 4306 on National Education. Beginning in the 1997-98 school year, 8-year compulsory basic education was implemented throughout the country with a view to ensuring organic unity and continuity in the educational program. The implementation of   8-year compulsory basic education is part of the Program for educational Modernization for the 21st Century, which includes the following objectives:

• Reducing class size to 30 students,
• Replacing two-shift education by full-day education,
• Transportation of students from schools which have mixed-grade classes to centralized, basic education schools; when trasportation isn't feasible, transfer of students to schools having dormitory facilities,
• Teaching at least one foreign language at primary level,
• Transition to computer-assisted education,
• Provision of up-to-date educational materials and equipment.

Furthermore, the educational system now includes an Open Basic Education School ( Açık İlköğretim Okulu ) which will allow those beyond basic education school age to complete their education as external students.

Prior to 1997, primary education comprised five years primary school ( İlkokul ) and three years of middle school, or junior high school ( Ortaokul ). After completion of the fifth year the Primary School Diploma ( İlkokul Diploması) was awarded, and the Middle School Diploma ( Ortaokul Diploması )  was awarded at the end of the three-year middle school education.In accordance with Law No. 4306, these two diplomas have been combined in and replaced by a single diploma , the Basic Education Diploma ( İlköğretim Diploması ), to be awarded to those students who successfully complete the 8-year basic education program.

The basic education program includes: Turkish language and literature, mathematics, social studies, science, civics and human rights, the history of the Turkish Republic and Atatürk's reforms, a foreign language (English, French or German), individual and group activities, religious culture and ethics, art/handicraft, music, physical education, traffic safety and first aid, career guidance, and elective courses. The number of hours a week devoted to each of these subjects is prescribed by the Ministry of National Education.

Students' textbooks,  teacher's books, worksheets, and teaching aids are prepared by both the Ministry of National Education and private firms. The approval of the Ministry is required in order for any materials to be used in schools.

In order to secure organic unity in the implementation of the basic education programs throughout the country and to provide the necassary guidance to administrators and teachers, an inspectorial system and a system of school administration have been established. Teachers at basic education schools are trained at university faculties of education and complete at least one year of teaching on provisional/probationary status prior to appoinment as regular teachers.

At basic education schools, students are graded on a graded on a scale of 1-5 (maximum), with 2 being the minimum passing grade (equivalent to 45/100).

4. SECONDARY EDUCATİON 

The aims and functions of secondary education are prescribed by Basic Law No.1735 on National Education, the following articles of which directly apply to secondary education:

• Article 26 states that secondary education comprises all educational institutions providing a minimum of three years of general, vocational, or technical education, subsequent to and based upon basic education,
• Article 27 states that all students who have completed basic education and earned the right to begin secondary education and benefit from it in line with their interests and abilities,
• Article 28 states that in keeping with the general objectives and basic principles of national education, the objectives and functions  of secondary education are:

a) to provide all students with a general  cultural background appropriate to the secondary level, to familiarize them with issues affecting both the individual and society, and to provide them with issues affecting both the individual and society, and to provide them with the awareness and abilty to seek solutions to such problems and to participate and the economic, social,and cultural development of country,

b)to provide programs and schools which will prepare students for the future, for higher education and/or various vocational and professional fields in keeping with their interest and abilities, bearing in mind,at the same time, the needs of society. 

• Article 29 states that secondary education comprises high schools implementing various programs; that high schools implementing various programs;that high schools implementing programs with a particular emphasis will be identified as technical high schools, agricultural vocational high schools, etc.; that the Ministry may establish multi-program high schools offerring secondary level general, vocational, and technical programs under a single schooladministration in areas having numerous sparsely - populated settlements; and that the length of period of study will be determined by the Ministry according to the nature of the program being implemented,
• Article 33 states that special provisions that special states provisions may be taken for the training and education from a young age, of students demonstrating special ability in the fine arts, including provision of special schools or facilities at the level of basic and secondary eduction, and that seperate regulations may be prepared to cover the structure, and functioning of such schools and facilities.

The secondary education system can broadly classified as General High Schools,and Vocational and Technical High Schools.

4.1 General High Schools

4.1.1 General High School (Genel Lise)

These schools offer programs lasting at least three years and preparing students for higher education in keeping with the objectives of Turkish national education.

In the 1997-98 school year, there were 1,606 general high schools, staffed by 48,854 teachers, and serving 928,545 students. During the same year, 16 new general high schools were opened.

A total of 101,931 primary education and 8th grade students are currently being educated  within the physical facilities of 434 high schools . As a consequence of the implementation of 8-year compulsory basic education,thoser middle schools which are attached to high schools will have been progressively phased out by the year 2000.

4.1.2 Foreign Language High School (Yabancı Dil Ağırlıklı  Lise)

Foreign Language High Schools were established with the aim of preparing high achieving students for higher education programs which correspond to their interests, abilities, and level of achievement; providing more effective foreign language teaching; raising the level of general secondary education; providing more extensive foreign language instruction.

The period of study at these schools is 4 years, with the first year being devoted to an intensive foreign language preparatory program.

This plan was first implemented in the 1992-93 school year at 28 high schools serving 5,210 students. In the 1997-98 school year , the number of schools reached 660, with 142,965 students being served. In the 1998-99 school year, 14 additional general high schools were included in this program, and the total number of schools reached 674.

4.1.3 ANATOLIAN HIGH SCHOOL (ANADOLU LİSESİ)

Anatolian high schools are selective institutions that were established with the aim of preparing students for higher education programs which correspond to their interests, abilities, nad level of achievement; providing more effective foreign language teaching; ensuring more efficient education through use of a foreign language as the medium of instruction.

These schools offer a four-year program (a language preparatory program prior to the three-year high school education ) using a modern European language, usually English, as the primary language of instruction in certain subjects such as science and mathematics. The demand for places in Anatolian high schools is high and admission is through a very competetıve entrance examination. Graduates are generally very successful in the university entrance exams.

These schools were first opened in 1955 in İstanbul, İzmir, Eskişehir, Diyarbakır, Konya, and Samsun and were called Ministry of Education Colleges. In 1975, they were re-named Anatolian High Schools.

In the 1997-98 school year, 210,716 students were enrolled at 391 Anatolian High Schools, staffed by 9,020 teachers.166 of these schools were located in provincial capitals, and 225 in sub-provinces. In the 1998-99 school year, the number of Anatolian High Schools has reached 406.

By the year 2002, the middle school sections of these high schools will have been progressively phased out.

4.1.4  Science High School  ( Fen Lisesi )

Science high schools were established with the aim of providing education to exceptionally gifted mathematics and science students; providing a source for the training of high-level scientists, in order to meet the needs of nation; encouraging students to engage in research activities ;providing facilities for students interested in working on inventions and discoveries; serving as labarotory for procedures to be implemented in the science and mathematics programs of other secondary schools.

These schools offer a three-year program with a curriculum which emphasises science and matheamtics. The schools have a class-size of 24 , and,  in accordance with regulations, are boarding schools. The language of instruction is Turkish. Entrance to science high schools generally achieve the highest scores in the university exams.

The first Science High School was opened in 1964 with the support of the Ford Foundation. In subsequent years, Science High School were opened in the following locations:

1982  İstanbul        

1983   İzmir  

1984   Kayseri  

1985   Gaziantep  

1986   Malatya  

1987   Adana  

1989   Bursa, Diyarbakır, Eskişehir, Erzurum, Konya, Trabzon  

1990   İçel  

1991   Kocaeli  

1992   Afyon, Isparta, Sivas  

1993   Kahramanmaraş, Kırıkkale, Yozgat  

1994   Aksaray, Çanakkale, Çankırı, Edirne, Erzincan, Ordu  

1996   Balıkesir, Bucak, Çorum, Denizli, Kütahya, Nevşehir, Turgutlu, Zonguldak  

1997   Aydın, Bilecik, Kars  

1998   Kırşehir

In 1997-98 school year , 7,314 students were enrolled in 38 Science High Schools, staffed by 595 teachers. In the 1998-99 school year, 1 additional  Science High School was opened, bringing the total to 39.

Teachers at  Science High Schools are selected from the general high school teacher population by means of a competitive examination.

4.1.5  Anatolian Fine Arts High School (Anadolu Güzel Sanatlar Lisesi)

Anatolian fine arts high schools were established with the aim of providing education in the fine arts to gifted students; training students to become research-oriented individuals, equipped with analytical and practical skills; preparing students for higher education programs requiring special abilities; providing students with extensive exposure to the national and international artistic developments; enabling students to acquire a good command of a foreign language.

There are a total of 19 such schools, established in following years:

1989  İstanbul  

1990   Ankara, Bursa, Eskişehir, İzmir, Kütahya  

1992   Adana, Bolu, Diyarbakır, Kayseri  

1993   Şanlıurfa  

1995   Antalya, Çankırı, Edirne, Isparta, Trabzon  

1998   Aksaray, Denizli, Erzurum

The period of study at these schools is 4 years, the first year being devoted to an intensive foreign language preparatory program.

In the 1997-98 school year, a total of 2,396 students were enrolled at Anatolian Fine Arts High Schools, staffed by 292 teachers.

4.1.6  Anatolian Teacher Preparation High School ( Anadolu Öğretmen Lisesi )

These schools were established with the aim of providing a source of student intake for teacher education programs at institutions of higher education.

In addition to the courses offered at general state high schools, students take courses in educational theory and methodology as well as in the history of education. The period of study these schools is 4 years, including a one year intensive English-language preparatory program. In the 1997-98 school year, 23,437 students were enrolled at 78 such schools.

• Regulations/Grading/Subjects and Fields

Students enrolled in general high schools are subject to the Ministry of  National Education Regulations Governing Grading and Passing at Secondary Institutions.Students are graded on a scale of 0-5 (maximum) with o and 1 being failing grades and 2 through 5 being passing grades.

All examinations, homework assignments, and projects are graded on a 100-point scale. Table 1 indicates the correlation of points (0-100), grades (0-5) and their interpretation.

Table 1. Grading system at high schools.

Students` grades are determined by taking into account their performance on written, spoken, and practical examinations, homework assignments, projects, and other in-class and out-of-class performance and activities, according to the nature of the particular subject.

The following subjects are a part of the core curriculum at all secondary schools:

• Turkish Language and Literature
• Religious Culture and Ethics
• History
• Geography
• Mathematics
• Physics
• Chemistry
• Biology
• Health
• Foreign Language
• Physical Education
• Military Science
• History of the Turkish Revolution and the Reforms of Atatürk
• Philosophy

Furthermore, in General High Schools, Anatolian High Schools, Foreign Language High Schools, Anatolian Fine Arts High Schools, and Science High Schools, there are some 80 subjects comprising area subjects, area electives and non-area electives.

At General High Schools, Anatolian High Schools, and Foreign Language High Schools, there are 6 subject areas as shown in Table 2. Students select their subject areas according to their performance in the first year of high school (9th grade), taking into account their interests, abilities, and achievement.

At Science High Schools, only the Science subject area is available, while at Anatolian Fine Arts High Schools, students must choose between Art and Music.

4.2 Vocational and Technical High School (Meslek ve Teknik Lise)

Vocational and technical high schools offer three-year programs (vocational schools) or four-year programs (technical schools). They prepare students for employment in various occupations, or for higher education. There are four main groups of high schools within this category.

4.2.1 Technical Schools for Boys 8Erkek Teknik Öğretim Okulları)

These schools offer programs aiming at meeting the need of the Turkish industrial sector for well-trained technical personnel, in response to ever-increasing developments in science and technology. Included under this rubric are:

• Anatolian Technical High Schools (Anadolu Teknik Liseleri)
• Technical High Schools (Teknik Liseler)
• Anatolian Vocational High Schools (Anadolu Meslek Liseleri)
• Industrial Vocational High Schools (Endüstri Meslek Liseleri)
• Multi-Program High Schools (Çok Programlı Liseler)

As shown in Table 3, in the 1997-98 school year, 369,947 students were enrolled at 1,091 such schools, staffed by 23,291 teachers.

In the 1997-98 school year, 2,128 students are attending industrial technical schools within the framework of the on going Full-Time Year-Long Education Project initiated in 1995-96 at sufficiently-equipped technical schools in areas having a high concentration of industry.

4.2.2 Technical Schools for Girls (Kız Teknik Okulları)

In keeping with contemporary economic, social, and technological developments, and taking into account regional priorities, these schools offer programs which aim at training mid-level qualified personnel, able to critically evaluate, implement, and adapt the latest scientific and technical methods, thus contributing to Turkish industry and family income.

These schools offer formal and non-formal programs which provide the opportunity for transfer to other programs and continuation at higher-level programs.these are shown in Table 4.

Furhermore, Technical Schools for Girls also have pre-school section for 4-5 year old children, which serve a practical laboratories for the application of new techniques.

In the 1997-98 school year, some 200,000 students were enrolled in 1,114 technical education institutions for girls (642 formal and 472 non-formal institutions).

* Including 1-year preparatory program.

+ Consists of short-term courses.

4.2.3 Commerce and Tourism Schools (Ticaret ve Turizm Öğretimi Okulları)

These schools train qualified personnel to meet the needs of the public and private sectors in the areas of commerce, tourism, accounting, computers, finance, marketing, banking, the cooperative movement, secretarial skills, real estate brokerage, stock exchange services, insurance, local administration, and mass communications. Students are prepared for pursuing various occupations as well as for higher education programs.

These schools include:

• Anatolian Hotel Management and Tourism Vocational High Schools (Anadolu Otelcilik ve Turizm Meslek Liseleri)
• Anatolian Foreign Trade Vocational  High Schools (Anadolu Dış Ticaret Meslek Liseleri)
• Anatolian Commercial Vocational  High Schools (Anadolu Ticaret Meslek Liseleri)
• Anatolian Secretarial Vocational  High Schools (Anadolu Sekreterlik Meslek Liseleri)
• Anatolian Culinary Arts Vocational  High Schools (Anadolu Aşçılık Meslek Liseleri)
• Commercial Vocational  High Schools (Ticaret Meslek Liseleri)
• Commercial Vocational Evening High Schools (Akşam Ticaret Meslek Liseleri)
• Anatolian Local Administration Vocational  High Schools (Anadolu Mahalli İdareler Meslek Liseleri)
• Anatolian Mass Communications Vocational  High Schools (Anadolu İletişim Meslek Liseleri)
• Multi-Program High Schools (Çok Programlı Liseler)

As shown in Table 5, in the 1997-98 school year, 237,360 students attended 650 schools, staffed by 10,642 teachers. Furthermore, 55,081 students at 499 schools were provided with on-the-job vocational training.186 of these schools operate a revolving fund.

Rapid developments in the commercial and tourism sectors are reflected in the great increases in the number of students, teachers, and schools. However, the schools lack the physical capacity to meet this ever-growing demand. In particular, only 50 % of the students applying to such schools in large cities such as Ankara, İstanbul, and İzmir can be accepted, due to physical constraints.

4.2.4 Religious Education Schools (Din Eğitimi Okulları)

Established an accordance with Article 4 of Law No. 430 on the Unification of Education and Article 32 of Basic Law No. 1739 on National Education, these schools aim at preparing male students to be imams (prayer leaders), and both male and female students to be preachers or Quranic course instructors.These schools operate within the secondary education system and also prepare students for institutions of higher education.

As shown in Table 6, in the 1997-98 school year, 178,046 students attendent 605 Religious Education High Schools staffed by 18,702 teachers.

The Regulations Governing Religious Education High Schools are currently being revised. Work is currently in progress for the establishment of intensive foreign language preparatory programs as well as new curricula and weekly timetables for these schools.

* In the 1997-98 school year, no students were admitted to the first year of middle school.

5. PRIVATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS

This rubric encompasses all institutions functioning in accordance with Law No. 625 including schools, dersanes (university preparation courses), and other specialized courses. These institutions all function under the supervision and control of the Ministry of Education.

Statistical data related to the private educational institutions in the 1997-98 school year are given in Table 7.

* Including specialists and master trainers.

6. SPECIAL EDUCATION

Special education in Turkey is carried out in schools specializing in a particular area of impairment. Provision are also made for impaired students to study at regular schools along with unimpaired children of the same age. Efforts are underway to expand this program of educational integration.

Special education is currently provided for the following groups of children and young people:

• The visiually impaired,
• The hearing impaired,
• The orthopedically impaired,
• The chronically ill.

Special Education Schools and Institutions comprise the following:

• Basic Education School for the Visually Impaired (Görme Engelliler İlköğretim Okulu)
• Basic Education School for the Hearing Impaired (İşitme Engelliler İlköğretim Okulu)
• Multi-Program High  School for the Hearing Impaired (İşitme Engelliler Çok Programlı Lisesi)
• Basic Education School for the Orthopedically Impaired (Ortopedik Engelliler İlköğretim Okulu)
• Vocational High School for the Orthopedically Impaired (Ortopedik Engelliler Meslek Lisesi)
• Hospital-Based Basic Education School (Hastane İlköğretim Okulu)
• School for Education and Practical Application (for the educable mentally-impaired) (Öğretilebilir Zihin Engelliler İçin Meslek Okulu )
• Science and arts Center (for the exceptionally gifted and talented students) (Üstün veya Özel Yetenekli Öğrenciler İçin Bilim ve Sanat Merkezi)
• Printing House and Evening Vocational School for the Visually Impaired (Görme Engelliler Basım Evi ve Akşam Sanat Okulu)
• Special Education Classes ( Özel Eğitim Sınıfları)

In the 1997-98 school year, 12,632 students were enrolled at 193 special education schools, staffed by 1,797 teachers. In addition, 11,379 students are enrolled in special education classes, and 6,875 students have been placed in integrated classes.

With the aim of organizing, coordinating, supervising, and evaluating guidance, phychological counselling,and special education services at educational institutions, a special education guidance and counselling services unit has been established in each province. Each unit is administred by an assistant provincial director or section head attached to a provincial directorate of national education.

At present, there are 99 guidance and research centers staffed by 540 teacher-counsellors in 80 provinces.

First established in 1970, primary school guidance and counselling offices are found at 1,693 schools and are staffed by 1,919 teacher-counsellors.

7.HIGHER EDUCATION

Together with the change of the Constitution in 1981, new provisions were made for higher education in Turkey. Foremost among these was the establishment of the Council of Higher Education (YÖK) to steer important activities of higher education institutions, i.e., planning, organization, governance, instruction and research. Secondly, provision was made for non-profit foundations to establish higher education law went into effect in 1981, and institutions were radically reorganized.

The  Council of Higher Education is a 22-member corporate public body responsible for the  planning, coordination and supervision of higher education within the provisions set forth in the Higher Education Law. Seven of its members are academics elected by the Interunıversity Council, seven are appointed directly by the President of The Republic, giving priority to former rectors, and eight are appointed by the government, mostly from among senior civil servants, each for a renewable term of four years. The president of the Council is directly appointed by the President of the republic from among the Council members. The day-to-day functions of the Council are carried out by a nine member executive committee, elected from among its members.

There are two other main administrative bodies in the field of higher education. These are the Interuniversity Council             ( Üniversitelerarası Kurul ), which consists of the rectors of all universities and the one member elected by the senate of each university, and the Turkish University Rectors' Committee (Rektörler Komitesi), which is made up of all university rectors and five ex-rectors.

The Minister of National Education represents higher education in the Parliement and can chair the meetings of the Council but has no vote. Neither decisions of the Council nor those of the universities are subject to ratification by the Ministry.

Higher education is defined as all post-secondary programs with a duration of at least two years. The system consists of universities ( 53 state and 19 private) and non-university institutions of higher education ( police and military academies and colleges).

Each university consists of faculties and four-year schools, offering bachelor's level programs, the latter with a vocational emphasis, and two year vocational schools offering pre-bachelor's (associate's) level programs of a strictly vocational nature.

Anadolu University in Eskişehir offers two-and year programs through distance education. This program has been greatly expanded in recent years, although entry remains competitive. Students use printed materials, and also lectures broadcast on television and contact hours are available.

Graduate-level programs consists of master's and doctoral programs, coordinated by institutes for graduate studies. Medical specially training programs equivalent to doctoral level programs are, carried out within the faculties of medicine and the training hospitals owned by the Ministry of Health (Sağlık Bakanlığı) and the Social Insurance Organization (Sosyal Sigortalar Kurumu, SSK).

Universities, faculties, institutions and four-year schools are founded by law, while two-year vocational  schools and departments are established by the Council of Higher Education. Likewise, the opening of a degree program at any level is subject to ratification by the Council.

7.1 Access

Admission to higher education is centralized and based on nation-wide examination adminisrated by the Student Selection and Placement Center (ÖSYM) every year. The center was established in 1974 and affiliated with the council of Higher Education in 1981.

Until 1998, the entrance examination was carried out in two stages. The first stage of the examination, the Student Selection Examination (ÖSS), consists of verbal and quantitative parts. Candidates with scores between 105 and 120 points are offered a restricted choice of higher education programs. Those with a minimum score of 120 are qualified for the second stage of the examination, the Student Placement Examination (ÖYS), which consists of five parts: natural sciences, mathematics, Turkish, social sciences and foreign language. Placement of candidates is based upon their composit scores. These scores are calculated by taking into account the scores of the first and the second stages of the entrance examination as well as the high school grade-point averages, with different weights. Starting from the 1998-99 academic year, the second stage of the examination has been abolished.

7.2 Undergraduate Education

In the 1997-98 academic year, undergraduate enrolment in Turkish universities was as follows:

  In addition, 7,568 bachelor's and 328 pre-bachelor's level students were enrolled in non-university higher education institutions, bringing the total to 1,330,241, of which 18,662 were foreign students.This amounts to a gross participation rate of 25.5 %, i.e., the ratio of the total enrolment in higher education to the population in the age group 18-21 years of age.

7.3 Graduate Education

In the 1997-98 academic year , the total number of graduate students in universities was 74,838. of this number, 49,123 were in master's, 19,996 in doctoral and  5,719 in medical specialty training programs. With an additional 39 students in non-university higher education institutions, the total graduate level enrolment adds up to 74,877, of which 1,186 were foreign students.

7.4 Sources of Funding

The annual budget of each state university is negotiated jointly by the Council of    Higher Education and the university concerned with the Ministry of   Finance   (Maliye Bakanlığı ) and, in the case of the investment budget, with the State Planning Organization  (Devlet Planlama Teşkilatı , DTP ).   The Council transmits these budgets , together with its own budget , to the Ministry of National Education , and the Minister defends them in the Parliament. The president  of the   Council is also given the floor at the beginning   and the end of the discussion  in the parliamentary commission. The result is a line-item budget with very specific earmarked budget figures.

In addtion to the annual state-provided budget, each university has three more sources of income.First, income from the services provided by the university, such as patient care in university hospitals, and contract research, is collected in a revolving fund. Second ,student contributions towards highly subsidized services are collected in a separate fund. Third,each university has a research fund made up of a lump sum grant from the state-provided budget plus a portion of the income from the revolving fund and from earmarked projects given by the State Planning Organization.   

The above-mentioned three funds are also subject to laws,rules and regulations similar to those concerning the state-provided budget, which leave little room to maneuver. The major difference between these three funds and the state budget  is that any money left in the former is carried over to the next fiscal year while that left unspent in the state-provided budget reverts back to the Treasury.

The Scientific and Technical Research Council (TÜBİTAK) of  Turkey also supports research projects after evaluating proposals submitted  by faculty members. However,such grants are given directly to faculty members, and are thus not included in university income.

7.5 Governance

The Higher Education Law of 1981 has undergone a number of relatively minor changes since its enactment .The major change came in 1992, when new procedures for the    nomination and appointment of rectors were implemented.According to the new procedures, six candidates from among full professors of that or any other university are elected by the assembly of faculty members, which includes all full, associate and assistand professors in that university .From among these six, the Council of Higher Education elects three nominees by secret ballot, and submits their names to the    President of the Republic, who appoints one of them as the rector for a period four years, renewable  only once.

Deans are appointed by the Council from among three full professors nominated by the rector,while institute and school directors are directly appointed by the rector.

Each department within a faculty is made up of sections. Section heads are elected by faculty members in that section, who ,in turn, advise the dean regarding the appointment of the depatment chairperson.

Both academic and  administrative staff in state universities  have civil servant status and,except for research assistants and  assistant professors, have tenure.The numbers of academic and administrative staff posts allocated to each state university are determined by acts of Parliament ,while staff appointments at all levels are,however, made exclusively by the universities themselves, and are not subject to ratification by any outside authority.The law only sets forth the minimum requirements for academic promotions and the procedures to be followed in making appointments.

7.6 Private Universities

There were no private universities in Turkey until 1984. The Higher Education Law No.2547 made it possible for private universities to be established by non-profit foundations;these are sometimes referred to as foundation universities for this reason.There are now 19 private universities, 3 of which have not yet begun to operate.Private universities come under the supervision of the Council of Higher Education and their programs must be regularly accredited.

With the aim of partially defraying the expenditures of private universities, the Ministry of Finance may provide state assistance upon the application of the higher education institution concerned, the endorsement of the Council of  Higher Education and the recommendation of the Ministry of National Education.

The amount of such assistance per  students entolled in the private university concerned does not exceed one-half  of the amount  per-student at state institutions of  higher education  as calculated by dividing the total amount allocated to state institutions from the national budget that year by the total number of stusents enrolled in formal education programs at state institutions.

The amout of state assistance does not exceed forty-five  percent of the total budgetary expenditures of the private university.

In order  for a private university to qualify for the maximum amount of assistance indicated above, the institution must:

• have provided formal education for two years,
• have a publication /teaching staff member ratio equivalent to that of that of those state universities occupying a position in the upper half of a ranking of state universities in terms of average number of articles published per teaching staff member in a prominent academic journals recognized by an evaluation committee appointed by the Interuniversity Council,
• be in a position equivalent to those state universities in the upper half of a   ranking based on the number of students placed there who ranked among the top two thousand in terms of science and mathematics scores on the student placement examination,
• grant full-tuition scholarships to a minimum of ten percent of its students.

Private universities which are in a position equivalent to the state universities occupying the five lowest places in the ranking referred to above may be granted assistance equal to a maximum of twenty percent of their budgets.