This was the state of affairs when the National Assembly of Representatives convened for the first time (1920) in Ankara, where Mustafa Kemal Pasha, the leader of the nationalist movement, discreetly proclaimed on a mural poster:

-by inference- not to God the Almighty or any imperial [human] dynasty! The early declaration of Respublica (Cumhuriyet) was a signal of things to come, the unfolding Turkish Revolution. The moving spirit of revolution saw the salvation of his “semi-colonised, warweary, agrarian people” in the creation of a new Turkish Man, a new Turkish Society and a new Turkish Culture so that it would not fall again to the brink of extinction. How, then, was the cultural (Islamic) heritage to be reconciled with the revolutionary Republic? There appeared two, distinct strategies: first, an “Islamic Republic of Turkey”; second, a national culture to sustain the secular republic. Though the first option seemed difficult -remembering the long dichotomy lingering between Madrasa and school- the second was not much easier, although there were enlightened Muslim scholars like Mehmet Akif Ersoy who earnestly believed and proposed that “bearded hojhas” could be more effective and therefore should be given a role. “The foundation of the Turkish Republic was [going to be] culture” declared the leader -not the “obsolete culture” inherited from Ottomans but a viable culture to be created anew by the educational policies and purposes of the Turkish Republic:

Easier said than done certainly; but how?

    After the proclamation of the Republic (1923), a series of three laws were enacted on 3 March 1924. They affirmed that the Republic of Turkey :

1. Abolished the Ministry of Pious Foundations (Madrasa) and Religious (Sharia) Courts (Law No 429/1924),
2. Placed all educational institutions (except Istanbul University but including all Madrasa) under the Ministry of Education (Unification of Education Act, Law No 430/1924),
3. Shut down the office of Khaliphate and exiled the remaining members of the Ottoman Dynasty (Law No 431/ 1924).

    The third article of the Unification Act (430/1924) gave the financial control of all educational endowments to the Ministry of Education. The fourth article, however, authorised the Ministry to open special schools for educating the Imam-Hatib (Pastor-Preachers) schools and a Theology (Ilahiya) Faculty at the University for educating enlightened scholars of Islam. Madrasa were closed down but 29 new schools were opened for training the Imam-Hatibs who suddenly fell out of favour or demand; in the early 30’s the new schools were closed.

    Bold and decisive steps and measures followed and complemented one another. In 1924, Mustafa Kemal addressed the convention of teachers :

    Parallel to this call to arms, the principle of coeducation was introduced to elementary schools. A few months later in Samsun, the leader declared that “Science is the most reliable guide in life!” For the first time Imam Ghazali's, “incompatibility verdict” was publicly challenged. Years later this maxim was engraved on the façade of Ankara University. During the same (1924) year, educator John Dewey recommended a Ministerial Board of National Education and the famous policy slogan “A school at each work place and a work place in each school.” It sounded convincing but there weren't many schools or any work places in the country. Before going into action, Turkish educators pondered this “work- school” idea for nearly 15 years.

    In 1925, all mystic or esoteric associations and shrines of any religious affiliation (like tekke, zaviye and türbe) were closed.

    In two years, all public education at all levels was made free of tuition fees and the civil code was adapted from the Swiss. In Nutuk, the “Speech” read before the National Assembly in 1927, the leader for the first time pronounced the word laicité (“secularism”) although all legal foundations of secularism were already laid and much had been done without publicity. In 1928 the Latin alphabet was adapted and accepted. Soon thereafter folk-schools or courses were opened for teaching the nation its new Latin alphabet. Teachers themselves were mastering it with their adult students. Turkish students were required, by law, to attend Turkish primary schools. The Arabic Ezan or prayer call was given in Turkish for the first time soon followed by ritualistic reading of the Kur'an in Turkish.

    The article stating that “The religion of State is Islam” was dropped (1928) from the Constitution. Soon the secularism principle was incorporated into by-laws of the CHP (Republican People's Party) and the Turkish nationalist Akcura was installed the as President of the newly founded Historical Foundation (THK). The Turkish Linguistic Society followed the lead in History, in reviving a forgotten language. In 1931, Peoples' Houses and Peoples' Chambers were inaugurated for educating the parents of pupils going to Republican schools. The youth probably benefited more from the novel programs of these culture centers which convened the community together. The Faculty of Theology was closed because there wasn't sufficient demand (students). In 1933 at the Tenth Commemoration of the Republic, the semi-autonomous Istanbul University was reorganised (with the help of some Academicians running away from Nazi Germany) and brought under Ministerial supervision. The use of all honorific and titular titles, Islamic or otherwise, was outlawed in 1934. A new nation was coming of age and seemed proud of its accomplishments. Before the death of President Atatürk in 1938, by another amendment to the Constitution, the Turkish Republic was declared to be a "secular state" (Law No 3115/1937). An old dream had finally come true. A year later in 1939 the first Convention of National Education was held in Ankara.

    At the start, Republican schools were a continuation of the Ottoman 3+3+3+3 system which was first changed to 6+3+3 and later to a 5+3+3 years model. in which he 5-year elementary schools replaced the 3-year iptidai and the 3-year Rushdiya, the 3-year Idadiya became the middle (orta) school and the Sultani was now called the "Lise". Primary schools concentrated on the 3-R's rather than Holy Kur'an, plus life studies, history, geography, science and civics, handiwork, drawing, PT and music, all taught in Turkish. The middle (Orta) school and lise were considered the first and second levels of the new secondary education. For typical secondary school curricula see Table II.4.l.

Table II.4.1

Secondary School Programs: Years,

Subjects and Weekly Hours :1937-1938

Middle School                                          Lycee Years and Braches

                                                           (Core) Arts* & Sciences**

Subjects         1      2       3      Years:       1       2       3*       3**

Turkish          5         4          4

Literature                                                     3         3          5          2

History          2          2          2                         2          2          3          1

Geography    2          2           2                         2          2          1         1

Home (Civics)           2          2

Sociology                                                                                2          2

Psychology                                                                             2

Philosophy                                      3

Logic                                                                                       2         1

Mathematics    5          4          4                       5         4            2          8

Science                                   3

Chemistry and                                                   2          2          1          2

Laboratory                                              1          1          1/2

Physics and     3                                              2          2          1          2

Laboratory                                                    1          1          1/2        1

Biology and Hyg          2           3

Natural Science                  3                                  3          2           1          1

Foreign Lang      5            4          4                     5          5            5          3

Handwriting                     2

PT (Gymnastics)         1             1          1                       1           1            1

Drawing                          1             1          1

Music                              1            1          1

Military Sc. Boys            2          2                          2          2          2          2

Girls                             1          1                          1          1          1          1

Sewing (Girls)                  2            1

Nursing                            1

Free hour (Boys)              2

Weekly hours 31          31          30                      32          31       32        30

The positivistic character and the secular purposes of the curricula are evident as no Kur’anic readings or Islamic studies appear in the official syllabi.

    Parallel to the modernisation of public education, the young Republic made serious efforts to develop the programs for primary school teachers. In early years these programs reflected an Ottoman (Islamic) character but in the 1930's they became a corollary of the new secular education (See Table II.4.2.).

Table II.4.2.

Primary School Teachers Training Program

(Above the 3-year Middle/Orta School)

Literature                                   3                          2                              2

Pedagogy                                                             2                              1

Psychology                                                          2                              2

Education History                                                                               2

Teaching Methods                      2                          7

Sociology                                                                                           2

History                                      2                           2                             2

Geography                                2                            1                             2

Mathematics                              4                            4                             1

Physics & Chemistry                 4                            4

Biology & Hygiene                    2                            2                              3

Foreign Languages                    3                             2

Physical Training                       1                             1                             1

Drawing                                    1                             1                              1

Handiwork                                1                             1                              1

Music                                       1                              1                              1

Military Science (Boys)              2                              2                             2

Girls' Teacher Schools

Sewing                                      2                              1                             1

Baby Training                                                           1

Total Weekly Hours                 29                              29                           29

    Such was the character of public education down to the township level. Beyond this boundary lived the eternal peasants, or 75 to 85% of the population (Table II.4.4). During the Second World War years, the Turkish Republic undertook two major projects of educational significance. (1) An “educational mobilisation program for social change”, better known as the “Village Institutes” and (2) Parallel to the general (academic) schools, a second track of “vocational-technical” secondary schools for training the manpower to be employed in industrial productions –or eventual industrialization.

    According to the first official program published, the Village Institutes were designed as 5-year, coeducational, boarding, workschools after and above the 5-year elementary schools. Students were selected by examination. For Institute programmes see Table II.4.3.

    Village Institutes at long last seem to be designed to fulfill John Dewey's idea of combining work and education. Graduates were expected to be both school teachers and community leaders at the same time. Students actually built their own schools, homes, barracks, work places etc; and learned by doing and living together. Perceiving education as learning the 3R's in a classroom, many parents were shocked to see their children working hard out in the field with pick and shovel in hand. Some parents also objected to the novel but alien “co-educational boarding school” idea. Sibyan schools were coeducational but not for teenagers.

History                        Gardening                                  Horseshoe making   

Geography                   Transplanting                             Motor Mechanics

Home studies                  Orcharding                                Carpentry, Joinery

Mathematics                    Viniculture                                Woodworking      

Physics                            Vegetables                                Building Crafts

Chemistry                        Industrial plants                          Brick making  

Bio School Hygiene        Zoo technology                          Quarrying Stone   

Foreign Language           Poultry Cultivation                      Lime making

Handwriting Honey Harvesting                       Masonry   

Drawing Handiwork      Fishing-aquaculture                    Concrete

PT and Folk Dancing       Agrarian Arts                          Girls' Handworks   

Music                              Sewing

Military Drills                                                                 Embroidery        

Homemaking, Babycare                                                  Weaving   

Educational Sciences Horticulture

Sociology

Technology

Work psychology

Labor education

Teaching Methods

Agricultural Business

Cooperatives

Weekly hours    22 + 11 + 11 = 44 total

    According to the law of establishment (1940), only highly qualified, university graduates were to be appointed as Institute teachers. Rumours that there had been leftist infiltrations into the Institutes caused probably more harm than the leftist teachers themselves, proving the tenet that “rumours are more powerful than actions”.

    Resisting all pressures or temptations to enter the Second World War, Turkey maintained her neutrality until the very end. This meant hardship not only for Village Institutes but for the whole country and nation. A huge army mobilised to protect the country consumed the limited resources, causing shortages of basic foods, consumer goods, high prices, blackmarket profiteering and an ensuing general discontent.

    Hence, the year 1945, was a turning point in the Republic's destiny. The Allied Nations notified that, in order to become a founder of the UNO, the Turkish Republic had to qualify as a liberal (western) democracy. Turkey responded without delay and a Democratic Party was formed, in opposition to the People's Republicans Party in power. The population census gave a demographic profile of the nation in 1945 (See Table II, 4. 4.).

Table II.4,4.

Demographic Profile of Turkish Society :1945

Language             Turkish 88             Others 12                          100 Religion                 Muslim 98              Others 2                           100

Settlement

Patterns :                  Rural       75*            Urban 25*                         100

Sizes :                      Village 413              City 10168                     (Average)

    With 98 % following Islam and 88% speaking Turkish, this looked like an ideal profile for a modern nationhood. There was a draw back, however. Three out of every four Turks were still living in small, Neolithic villages that the republic had only in recent years been trying to reach by controversial village institutes. And what Turks called “cities” were, in fact, small agrarian townships economically dependent on scarce surplus. Turkey lacked both the urban and industrial pillars of a modern nationhood. The snap elections held in 1946 turned out to be a great surprise. The Republican Government barely managed to stay in power. Not the democratic party, but the anti-republican opposition was very strong indeed. Political analysts gave several likely reasons:

    a) The low price and high social cost of staying out of the War,

    b) The Secularist laique policies followed by the Republican Party governments,

    c) The Madrasa, long underground, was re-surfacing for a “democratic” come back,

    d) The continuing peasants' reaction to the Village Institutes imposed on them,

    e) The Democrats had wisely consolidated all such factors of discontent.

    The Republican Party and governments revised and geared their revolutionary policies to strategies of winning the next general elections due in 1950.

    During the Republican era, there were many statesmen, politicians and educators who served their country with dedication -from Empire to nationhood.

    Among them, of course, Atatürk as a leader and master teacher is unique and matchless. After Atatürk's death however, one philosophy teacher turned educator, Hasan Ali Yucel, as the Minister of Education, for nearly a decade towered and outshone the rest. From mobilisation for national literacy, to program developments in primary, secondary, rural, vocational-technical, teacher training, adult and informal education projects (like the translation of the World Heritage of Literature) and finally, to the autonomy of higher educations, he became the legendary minister and unchallenged “Champion of National Education”. From time immemorial, he conveyed the message “know thyself”. He said, for a nation or individual, “What is important is to know who you are!” In the 1940-1941 School Year, classical branches of selected lycees offered five hours of Latin as an elective. Under political pressure this option was discontinued after 1949. With the phenomenal rise of democratic opposition, Minister Yücel yielded to conservative colleagues (1946).

    In 1947, some parliamentarians recommended religious courses as a counter or preventive measure to the growing Communist threat. In 1949 the Republican Party Caucus decided that subject to parental request, religion may be taught in only the 4th and 5th grades of public schools, and that Imam-Hatib Courses, too, may be opened by the Ministry of National Education.