From Beginnings to Tanzimat (ca 1850)

Part I. From Beginnings to Tanzimat (ca 1850)

Education of the ancient Turks from early beginnings to the Tanzimat (or the Ottoman Reformation) period in the second half of the l9th century is overviewed in three parts:

Education among Ancient Turks before the Ottomans,
Schools and Scholars molding the Ottoman Empire,

The Enderun School and Upbringing of Janissaries.

I.1 Education of the Ancient Turks before Ottomans

The home of the ancient Huns and Turks, often referred to as "Central Asia", was actually in the Altai region located to the north of China. Nomadic peoples of this region were engaged in a semi-pastoral animal husbandry. That is, like modern Mongolians, they lived in portable, round tents and moved about, grazing their stock on piedmonts, plateaus and back to the plains. The Great Wall of China separated but did not block them from the fertile lands and basins lying in the south. They frequently crossed the wall and invaded the Chinese territories but, more often than not, fell prey to cultural assimilation with agrarian peoples and became Chinese. After the Huns, migrating to and invading Europe, Turks established their own steppe empire known as the Gokturk (AD 552-745). Towards the end of this statecraft, they erected the Orhon Monuments with signs and symbols of the early Turkish cosmology in both the Turkish (38-letter Runic) alphabet and the Chinese (khanji) characters. After the Gokturks, Uygurs (AD 745-950) in the Eastern Turkistan or Sin-kiang (agricultural) region of western China, living in townships, had commercial relations with neighbors and used a new (14-letter Sogd) alphabet, adapted to the agglutinative nature of Turkic languages. After a long practice of Altaistic Shamanism (Eliade, 1964), the Uygurs seem to have become acquainted with, and converted to Buddhism, which had long been diffusing from Northern India towards China, Korea and Japan. Nomadic Turkish tribesmen, migrating further west, also encountered the Islamic conquest sweeping the region to the east of the Caspian Sea and west of the Aral lake, a region alternately referred by Persians as "Turan" or the home of Turks.

This is where Turks, gradually converting to Islam, established their first and important dynasties known as the Karakhanid (AD 940-1211), falling north of the Oxus, and Ghaznavid (AD 963-1186) to the south of the Oxus. To the north of these peoples, between the rivers Syr Darya and Amu Darya, lived the Oghuz (Ghuz) tribes who later founded the Seljuk Dynasty (AD 10381157) in Persia and Asia Minor (Anatolia).

Education in the pre-Islamic era was, as expected, mainly by enculturation, ie, "mores made everything right." People believed sons were born to become like fathers and daughters like their mothers. Hence the maxim: "Fathers educate their sons and mothers their daughters." The first literary culture apart from the imperial Chinese influences seemed to flourish among the Uygurs, who, with their simple (14-letter Sogd) alphabet, were, according to archeologist Bossert, forerunners in the invention or diffusion of the printing press, somewhat ahead of the Chinese.

Educational ideas and practices, in transition from a warlike nomadism of massive hordes (from the Turkic word ordu) to a more peaceful agrarianism, may be found, in, or traced to the epic stories in the "Book of (my) Grandad Korkut" (Kitab-ı Dede(m) Korkut). The book depicts twelve stories of Oghuzian narrators ("ozans" or travelling folk bards). They appear to be composed in different times and places, starting probably in the lower reaches of the Syr-Darya (from about 9^th to 10^th centuries), and in north eastern Asia Minor (from 10^th to 15^th centuries). The stories as a whole reflect the cultural transition from pre-Islamic to Islamic, from the fighting Alp to the wise Sufi or Ghazi, from a nomadic stock to an agrarian way of life. Oghuz tribesmen distinguished themselves not only with physical but also with high moral strength. The brave one would not brag about his own deeds but honor other heroes. Such values as praising morality, bravery, and devotion to homeland and respect to ancestors as the highest virtues were handed down from each generation to the next. Korkut, the wise old man, was the tutor of the Khan, princes and common people alike. He was the unchallenged authority, symbol and speaker of the ethos. "Valour is dearer than wealth" he said. He taught the rules of honor, conscience, faith and devotion to ancestors. There is the story about a captive father who was declared dead so that his son would not be ashamed by his father's disgrace. Children were under the care of the family until they were 15 years old. Childless couples were held in low esteem.

Twelve stories of the epic, tied together around the Grandad Korkut figure, were transcribed into a written text in the l4th or l5th century. They are about the relations of the Oghuz with neighboring Armenians, Romans (Rums or Byzantines) and Georgians. They provide insight into sacred convictions and practices, family structures, economic life and political organisations. According to Camshidov, the functional purpose of the Korkut stories is to defend peace and to order in the land and protect the unity and honor of the Oghuz peoples. Contrary to the "inner" (iç) and "outer" (dış) moieties mentioned in the stories, Bayındır Khan living all the way up in north Kazan is the chief of all Oghuz tribes. Wars break out with enemy attacks but end with Oghuz victory. The peace-loving Khan emerges as a charismatic leader. The "ego vs others" structures detected are fictive. Rather than antagonism or dichotomy, a spirit of diversity, tolerance, forgiveness, love, affection and conciliation prevails in the land between groups. If the individual takes responsibility for all, the whole community will protect the rights of individuals. A mother's right is held equivalent to God's. Women appear to be active, leading and respected heroines in all stories. A son named Uruz, defying or rebelling against his father, declares that he is leaving home for the Abhaza, to adopt Christianity and marry the priest's daughter. As suggested by Koestler in the Thirteenth Tribe some probably converted to Judaism, too.

Another sourcebook of information concerning early Turkish education, and reflecting Islamic influences, is the Kutatgu Bilig ("Ethics of Happiness") by Yusuf Has Hajib (1069) of Balasagun. It was written in the Uygur (Sogd) alphabet and presented to Hasan Ibn Suleiman Aslan Khan of the Karakhanid Dynasty. The scenario consists of didactic dialogues taking place between the Khan representing justice, and his three men representing wisdom, rationality and contentment respectively. Where knowledge was considered to be the highest good, and honesty the best policy. Humans, become men by education. Parents, therefore, are morally accountable for the proper education of their children: in Section 63 and after, there are pieces of educational advice and wisdom generously offered:

Train each child yourself Teach them knowledge, ethics

Don't trust them to others, For happiness in two worlds,

Don't let children wander Find a good bride for the son

For they may go yonder Let daughter be married away,

Lucky I f girls weren't born at all.

In the last couplet there is a marked prejudice against the female sex which is either attributed to the author himself or the relatively secondary status of women in the newly adopted Islam, which seems like a departure from the nomadic and the transient Grandad Korkut teaching of ethics.

Another text of educational significance is the Divan-ü Lugat-it Turk (A "Cyclopaedic Dictionary of Turkish Languages") by Mahmut of Kashgar. It was written in Baghdad (1072-74), with the express purpose of introducing and teaching Turkish to Arabic speaking peoples. As in the other books already mentioned, there is no sign of a formal or scholastic education but frequent references to baby training, cultural and informal processes such as the importance of hygiene, tender lullabies from by mothers for putting babies to sleep in a cradle; proper nursing, toilet training, etc. Some ghosts or phantoms are mentioned for scaring and disciplining the child when and if necessary. Also, a variety of child games were described for correctly identifying the names of animals and plants living in the vicinity. According to Mahmut of Kashgar, the Turkish word bilig (as in the title Kutatgu Bilig above), means and is used for science, philosophy and logos. This book is also a linguistic introduction to Turkish proverbs: knowledge is an attribute of state existence; listen to the wise and do what you learn from them, etc. Principles for effective learning of the Turkish language are:

Proceed from sample cases to general rules, ie. induction rather that deduction which is also followed in Islamic discourse,
Use samples, poems and proverbs of daily cycle,
Approach culture by means of, or through language,
Repeat generously and use repetitions for effective teaching-learning.

Taking his own advice Mahmut wrote, edited and revised his own book several times. He added to his book a circular map of the world lying around the Old (Asiatic) World, which did not include Byzantines, whom the Seljuks had just defeated (1071). These were busy consolidating their military victory in Asia Minor (Anatolia).

The Seljuk Dynasty of Iran was a new state founded by the Turkish invaders, descending from the Sasanid Dynasty. They overwhelmed and employed the old Persian bureaucratic language, know-how and tradition in statecraft, surviving the Islamic takeover of Persia. Their education is marked by

(a) the favorable disposition of statesmen towards the arts and sciences

(b) the Institutions of formal and informal education and

Famous Seljuk rulers like Tugrul Bey, Alpaslan, Melikshah, Nizam-al Mulk the author of Siyasetname ("Book of the Politics") and Sancar had all displayed great trust and respect for the Madrasa scholars. The organisation of the Great Seljuk State after Ghazali was based on secular separation of the politico-military affairs and the Khaliphate, responsible for religious affairs. They were, however, coordinated by a Grand Vizier or Secretary of State, under but acting on behalf of the Sultan. Their official motto was that

A true scholar will not yield or bow to the amir,

[but] a true amir will always consult the scholar.

Statesmen serving in all branches of the government were trained in the Madrasa. Hence, in Islam, ulema, or "scholars", means priests and pastors. The Seljuks tried to establish and maintain the Dar-al Islam (Commonwealth of Islam) in Anatolia, for which they fought to the bitter end. After the first Seljuk Madrasa founded in Nishapur in 1040 by Tugrul Bey, several Nizamia Madrasa were founded by Alpaslan and his grand vizier Nizam-al Mulk in Baghdad, They were soon extended to all major cities like Musul, Basra, Herat, Isfahan, Merv, Amul, Rey and Tus. Several of the functions and purposes assigned to the new Madrasa were :

Defending the Sunni (Orthodox) faith against the political Shia,

Training state bureaucrats for service to the empire,
Ensuring the allegiance of the Oghuz tribesmen to the state,
Educating the Muslim scholars (Mullah or clergy),
Supervising the education of people in newly acquired lands,
Selecting and promoting the poor for various state functions,
Initiating statesmen into science and education for public service.

The instruction was in Arabic, the language of the holy Koran. The method of teaching was based on rote learning or memorizing by repetition. Except for the main cities, there was only one full professor (mudariss/ master teacher or instructor) per institution with several assistants or associates. The student enrolments ranged from an average of 40 to several hundred. In Konia, the capital of Anatolian Seljukids in the l3th century, for example, there were 15 madrasa enrolling a total of about 600 students.

Foundations seem to have been instrumental and successful in providing ample funds for the employment of staff for the employment of staff including masters and students, and for the maintenance of the institution including masters, assistants, tutors, imams and students. Salaries, stipends and scholarships ranged from a yearly maximum of 800 dinars (units) paid to the master, down to 10-15 dinars for the students, in addition to their board and lodging. Madrasa also had special funds earmarked for buying books, lighting and fuel oil, general housekeeping, etc.

During the less than 200 eventful years of their reign in Anatolia, which were marked with incessant fighting, clashes and conflicts between Seljuks of Iconium, Byzantines of Byzantium, native peasants and nomadic Turkomen of Asia Minor, not forgetting the several waves of Crusaders and the Mongolian conquest of 1240's which shook and weakened the Seljuk holdings in Anatolia, the Seljuks built an impressive number of cultural and commercial institutions, such as madrasa, hospitals, mosques, caravanserais, etc. Despite great odds and handicaps caused by persistent wars, they laid the cultural infrastructure of the Turkish sovereignty in Anatolia, leading to eventual Islamization and Turkification of native and migrant belligerents. All these accomplishments may be attributed to their integrative policies in intercultural education or acculturation. In 1277, Mehmet Beg of Karaman near Konia boldly decreed that "From now on, Turkish shall be the official language of the Court and that of the Land", implying obviously that it was not so until then. As the Seljukids of Iconium seemed to be nearing exhaustion the Ottomans on the northwest frontier, bordering and reckoning with Byzantium were getting ready for a takeover to replace the Seljuk Sultanate.

The Seljuks had innovated and developed informal institutions like the Ahis brothers. Comparable in many ways to the Free Masonic brotherhood of the West, This received both operational (on the job) and speculative training, consisting of the 3-Rs, the basics of religion, personal and institutional hygiene and an ethical code of behaviour, involving the successive tying and untying of their business aprons. This ritual symbolized the closing and opening of doors:

Close the door to misery, exploitation, greed, torture, carnal desires, talking nonsense or gossiping and that of the satanic temptations; but open the door to generosity, contentment, patience, honesty, trust and reliability etc. The following three should be kept strictly closed: eyes (not to envy others), mouth-tongue (to refrain from cursing), and dress belts (not to commit adultery). In contrast, Ahis should have open hands for generosity, open doors for welcoming "God-sent guests" and open tables for feeding the hungry. The traveller Ibn Battuta vividly testifies that Ahis, all over Anatolia, earnestly practised what they preached and accommodated their foreign guests, visiting the land.